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Family Is Laughing and Crying Through All the Honesty and All the Lying

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Intentionally false statement made to deceive

A lie is an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deceiving someone.[ane] [ii] [iii] [iv] The practice of communicating lies is called lying. A person who communicates a lie may be termed a liar. Lies may serve a diversity of instrumental, interpersonal, or psychological functions for the individuals who use them.

More often than not, the term "prevarication" carries a negative connotation, and depending on the context a person who communicates a lie may be subject area to social, legal, religious, or criminal sanctions.

Although people in many cultures believe that deception can be detected past observing nonverbal behaviors (east.k. non making centre contact, fidgeting, stuttering) research indicates that people overestimate both the significance of such cues and their ability to make accurate judgements nearly charade.[5] [vi] More generally, people's power to make truth judgments is affected by biases towards accepting incoming data and interpreting feelings as bear witness of truth. People don't always bank check incoming assertions against their memory.[7]

Types and associated terms

  • A barefaced, bald-faced or bold-faced lie is an impudent, brazen, shameless, flagrant, or adventurous lie that is sometimes but non always undisguised and that it is even then not always obvious to those hearing it.[8]
  • A big lie is 1 that attempts to play a joke on the victim into believing something major, which will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the victim'due south reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed exist concocted.[9]
  • A black lie is about simple and draconian selfishness. They are usually told when others proceeds goose egg, and the sole purpose is either to get ourselves out of problem (reducing damage against ourselves), or to gain something we want (increasing benefits for ourselves). [10] [ improve source needed ]
  • A blue lie is a grade of lying that is told purportedly to benefit a commonage or "in the proper noun of the collective skilful". The origin of the term "blue lie" is perhaps from cases where police force officers fabricated fake statements to protect the police force or to ensure the success of a legal instance confronting an defendant.[11] This differs from the blue wall of silence in that a blue prevarication is not an omission but a stated falsehood.
  • An April fool is a lie or hoax told/performed on Apr Fools' Day.
  • To bluff is to pretend to accept a adequacy or intention ane does not possess.[ix] Bluffing is an act of deception that is rarely seen as immoral when it takes identify in the context of a game, such as poker, where this kind of charade is consented to in advance by the players. For instance, gamblers who deceive other players into thinking they accept unlike cards to those they really hold, or athletes who hint that they will move left and then dodge right are not considered to exist lying (likewise known as a feint or juke). In these situations, deception is acceptable and is commonly expected as a tactic.
  • Bullshit (also B.South., bullcrap, bull) does not necessarily accept to be a complete fabrication. While a lie is related by a speaker who believes what is said is false, bullshit is offered by a speaker who does not care whether what is said is true because the speaker is more concerned with giving the hearer some impression. Thus bullshit may be either true or faux, but demonstrates a lack of business for the truth that is likely to lead to falsehoods.[12]

A motivational affiche most lying declares "An ostrich only thinks he 'covers upwards'"

  • A cover-up may be used to deny, defend, or obfuscate a lie, errors, embarrassing actions, or lifestyle, and/or lie(south) made previously.[ix] One may deny a lie made on a previous occasion, or alternatively, i may merits that a previous lie was non every bit egregious every bit it was. For case, to claim that a premeditated lie was actually "only" an emergency lie, or to claim that a cocky-serving lie was actually "only" a white lie or noble lie. This should not be dislocated with confirmation bias in which the deceiver is deceiving themselves.
  • Defamation is the communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of an individual person, business organization, production, group, government, organized religion, or nation.[9]
  • To deflect is to avoid the bailiwick that the lie is most, non giving attention to the lie. When attention is given to the subject the lie is based around, deflectors ignore or pass up to respond. Good deflectors are passive-aggressive, who when confronted with the subject choose to ignore and not answer.[thirteen]
  • Disinformation is intentionally faux or misleading information that is spread in a calculated mode to deceive target audiences.[nine]
  • An exaggeration occurs when the nearly fundamental aspects of a statement are true, simply just to a certain degree. It likewise is seen as "stretching the truth" or making something appear more powerful, meaningful, or real than information technology is. Maxim that someone devoured most of something when they only ate half would be considered an exaggeration. An exaggeration might be easily found to be a hyperbole where a person's statement (i.e. in informal speech, such equally "He did this one meg times already!") is meant non to be understood literally.[9]

  • Fake news is supposed to exist a blazon of yellow journalism that consists of deliberate misinformation or hoaxes spread via traditional print and broadcast news media or online social media.[14] Sometimes the term is applied as a deceptive device to deflect attention from uncomfortable truths and facts, nonetheless.
  • A fib is a lie that is piece of cake to forgive due to its field of study being a piddling affair; for example, a kid may tell a fib by claiming that the family canis familiaris broke a household vase, when the child was the 1 who broke it.[9]
  • Fraud refers to the act of inducing another person or people to believe a lie in order to secure material or fiscal proceeds for the liar. Depending on the context, fraud may subject the liar to civil or criminal penalties.[15]
  • A gray prevarication is told partly to assistance others and partly to help ourselves. It may vary in the shade of gray, depending on the remainder of assistance and damage. Gray lies are, almost by definition, difficult to clarify. For case you tin prevarication to assist a friend out of problem only then gain the reciprocal benefit of them lying for you while those they have harmed in some way lose out. [x] [ better source needed ]
  • A half-truth is a deceptive argument that includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly truthful, the statement may be totally true, but only part of the whole truth, or it may utilise some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation or double meaning, peculiarly if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame, or misrepresent the truth.[16]
  • An honest prevarication (or confabulation) may be identified by verbal statements or actions that inaccurately describe the history, background, and present situations. At that place is generally no intent to misinform and the individual is unaware that their information is false. Because of this, it is non technically a lie at all since, past definition, there must exist an intent to deceive for the argument to be considered a lie.
  • Jocose lies are lies meant in jest, intended to be understood as such by all present parties. Teasing and irony are examples. A more elaborate instance is seen in some storytelling traditions, where the storyteller's insistence that the story is the accented truth, despite all evidence to the contrary (i.due east., tall tale), is considered humorous. There is argue about whether these are "existent" lies, and different philosophers concur different views. The Crick Cleft Club in London arranges a yearly "Yard Lying Contest" with the winner being awarded the coveted "Hodja Cup" (named for the Mulla Nasreddin: "The truth is something I have never spoken."). The winner in 2010 was Hugh Lupton. In the United States, the Burlington Liars' Club awards an annual title to the "World Champion Liar."[17]
  • Lie-to-children is a phrase that describes a simplified caption of technical or complex subjects as a teaching method for children and laypeople. While lies-to-children are useful in teaching complex subjects to people who are new to the concepts discussed, they can promote the creation of misconceptions among the people who heed to them. The phrase has been incorporated by academics within the fields of biology, development, bioinformatics, and the social sciences. Media apply of the term has extended to publications including The Chat and Forbes.
  • Lying by omission , also known as a continuing misrepresentation or quote mining, occurs when an important fact is left out in guild to foster a misconception. Lying by omission includes the failure to correct pre-existing misconceptions. For instance, when the seller of a machine declares information technology has been serviced regularly, but does not mention that a fault was reported during the last service, the seller lies by omission. It may be compared to dissimulation. An omission is when a person tells most of the truth, but leaves out a few key facts that therefore, completely obscures the truth.[13]

Consumer protection laws often mandate the posting of notices, such as this one which appears in all automotive repair shops in California.

  • Lying in trade occurs when the seller of a product or service may annunciate untrue facts about the production or service in order to gain sales, especially by competitive advantage. Many countries and states have enacted consumer protection laws intended to gainsay such fraud.
  • A memory pigsty is a mechanism for the alteration or disappearance of inconvenient or embarrassing documents, photographs, transcripts, or other records, such every bit from a website or other archive, particularly every bit part of an endeavour to give the impression that something never happened.[18] [19]
  • Minimization is the opposite of exaggeration. It is a type of deception[xx] involving deprival coupled with rationalization in situations where complete denial is implausible.
  • Mutual deceit is a situation wherein lying is both accustomed and expected[21] or that the parties mutually accept the cant in question.[22] This tin can be demonstrated in the case of a poker game wherein the strategies rely on deception and backbiting to win.[22]

  • A noble lie, which also could be called a strategic untruth, is ane that commonly would cause discord if uncovered, but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly social club, therefore, potentially beingness beneficial to others. It is often told to maintain police force, order, and safety.
  • Paltering is the agile use of selective truthful statements to mislead.[24]
  • Paternalistic deception is a prevarication told because it is believed (possibly incorrectly) that the deceived person will do good.
  • In psychiatry, pathological lying (besides called compulsive lying, pseudologia fantastica, and mythomania) is a behavior of habitual or compulsive lying.[25] [26] It was get-go described in the medical literature in 1891 past Anton Delbrueck.[26] Although it is a controversial topic,[26] pathological lying has been defined every bit "falsification entirely disproportionate to whatsoever discernible terminate in view, may exist all-encompassing and very complicated, and may manifest over a period of years or fifty-fifty a lifetime".[25] The individual may exist aware they are lying, or may believe they are telling the truth, beingness unaware that they are relating fantasies.
  • Perjury is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter under adjuration or affirmation in a courtroom of police, or in any of various sworn statements in writing. Perjury is a criminal offense, considering the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the brownie of the courtroom to remain intact, witness testimony must exist relied on as truthful.[ix]
  • A polite lie is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and that usually is known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily dependent on culture. A common polite prevarication in international etiquette may be to reject invitations because of "scheduling difficulties", or due to "diplomatic disease". Similarly, the butler lie is a small lie that usually is sent electronically and is used to terminate conversations or to save face.[27]
  • Puffery is an exaggerated claim typically establish in advertising and publicity announcements, such every bit "the highest quality at the lowest cost", or "ever votes in the best interest of all the people". Such statements are unlikely to be true – but cannot be proven false and then, do not violate trade laws, particularly as the consumer is expected to be able to determine that it is not the absolute truth.[28]
  • A red lie is near spite and revenge. It is driven by the motive to harm others fifty-fifty at the expense of harming oneself. When we are angry at others, possibly considering of a long feud or where nosotros feel they have wronged united states of america in some way, we feel a sense of betrayal then seek retributive justice, which nosotros may dispense without idea of result. [x] [ better source needed ]
  • The phrase "speaking with a forked tongue" means to deliberately say one thing and hateful some other or, to exist hypocritical, or act in a duplicitous style. This phrase was adopted by Americans around the time of the Revolution, and may exist found in abundant references from the early nineteenth century – often reporting on American officers who sought to convince the Ethnic peoples of the Americas with whom they negotiated that they "spoke with a straight and non with a forked natural language" (as for example, President Andrew Jackson told members of the Creek Nation in 1829).[29] According to one 1859 account, the saying that the "white man spoke with a forked natural language" originated in the 1690s, in the descriptions by the indigenous peoples of French colonials in America inviting members of the Iroquois Confederacy to attend a peace conference, simply when the Iroquois arrived, the French had set up an ambush and proceeded to slaughter and capture the Iroquois.[xxx]
  • Weasel word is an informal term[31] for words and phrases aimed at creating an impression that a specific or meaningful argument has been made, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has been communicated, enabling the specific meaning to be denied if the statement is challenged. A more formal term is equivocation.
  • A white lie is a harmless or trivial lie, especially ane told in club to exist polite or to avoid hurting someone's feelings or stopping them from being upset past the truth.[32] [33] [34] A white lie besides is considered a lie to be used for greater practiced (pro-social behavior). Information technology sometimes is used to shield someone from a hurtful or emotionally-dissentious truth, peculiarly when not knowing the truth is deemed past the liar as completely harmless.

Consequences

The potential consequences of lying are manifold; some in detail are worth considering. Typically lies aim to deceive, when charade is successful, the hearer ends up acquiring a false conventionalities (or at least something that the speaker believes to be fake). When deception is unsuccessful, a lie may be discovered. The discovery of a lie may ignominy other statements by the same speaker, staining his reputation. In some circumstances, it may also negatively affect the social or legal continuing of the speaker. Lying in a court of law, for instance, is a crime (perjury).[35]

Hannah Arendt spoke about boggling cases in which an entire club is beingness lied to consistently. She said that the consequences of such lying are "not that yous believe the lies, only rather that nobody believes anything whatsoever longer. This is because lies, by their very nature, have to be inverse, and a lying government has constantly to rewrite its own history. On the receiving finish y'all go not simply one lie – a prevarication which yous could proceed for the rest of your days – but you lot become a keen number of lies, depending on how the political wind blows."[36]

Detection

The question of whether lies tin can exist detected reliably through nonverbal has been the subject area of frequent study. While people in many cultures believe that deception tin can be indicated by behaviors such as looking away, fidgeting, or stammering, this is not supported by research.[5] [6] A 2019 review of enquiry on charade and its detection through nonverbal behavior concludes that people tend to overestimate both the reliability of nonverbal behavior as an indicator of deception, and their ability to make accurate judgements about charade based on nonverbal beliefs.[5] [37]

Polygraph "lie detector" machines measure the physiological stress a subject endures in a number of measures while giving statements or answering questions. Spikes in stress indicators are purported to reveal lying. The accuracy of this method is widely disputed. In several well-known cases, application of the technique has been shown to have given incorrect results.[ examples needed ] Nonetheless, it remains in use in many areas, primarily as a method for eliciting confessions or employment screening. The unreliability of polygraph results are the basis of such evaluations non being admissible as courtroom bear witness and, generally, the technique is perceived to be pseudoscience.[38]

A recent report institute that composing a prevarication takes longer than telling the truth and thus, the fourth dimension taken to answer a question may be used as a method of prevarication detection,[39] notwithstanding, information technology also has been shown that instant answers with a lie may be proof of a prepared lie. A recommendation provided to resolve that contradiction is to try to surprise the subject and detect a midway answer, not too quick, nor too long.[40]

Ideals

Utilitarian philosophers accept supported lies that achieve good outcomes – white lies.[41] In his 2008 book, How to Brand Expert Decisions and Be Right All the Time, Iain King suggested a apparent rule on lying was possible, and he defined it as: "Deceive only if y'all can modify behaviour in a fashion worth more than the trust you would lose, were the deception discovered (whether the deception actually is exposed or not)."[42]

Stanford Law professor Deborah L. Rhode articulated iii rules she says ethicists mostly agree distinguish "white lies" from harmful lies or cheating:[43]

  • A disinterested observer would conclude that the benefits outweigh the harms
  • There is no culling
  • If anybody in similar circumstances acted similarly, society would be no worse off

Aristotle believed no full general dominion on lying was possible, because anyone who advocated lying could never be believed, he said.[44] Although the philosophers St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Immanuel Kant, condemned all lying,[41] Thomas Aquinas did advance an argument for lying, still. According to all 3, there are no circumstances in which, ethically, one may lie. Even if the simply way to protect oneself is to lie, information technology is never ethically permissible to lie even in the face up of murder, torture, or any other hardship. Each of these philosophers gave several arguments for the upstanding basis against lying, all uniform with each other. Amidst the more of import arguments are:

  1. Lying is a perversion of the natural faculty of spoken communication, the natural end of which is to communicate the thoughts of the speaker.
  2. When one lies, one undermines trust in society.

In Lying, neuroscientist Sam Harris argues that lying is negative for the liar and the person who's being lied to. To say lies is to deny others access to reality, and oftentimes nosotros cannot conceptualize how harmful lies tin be. The ones nosotros prevarication to may neglect to solve issues they could have solved but on a basis of good data. To prevarication also harms oneself, makes the liar distrust the person who'south being lied to.[45] Liars generally feel badly nigh their lies and sense a loss of sincerity, authenticity, and integrity. Harris asserts that honesty allows i to accept deeper relationships and to bring all dysfunction in one's life to the surface.

In Human being, All Besides Human, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that those who refrain from lying may practise then only because of the difficulty involved in maintaining lies. This is consistent with his general philosophy that divides (or ranks) people according to strength and ability; thus, some people tell the truth only out of weakness.

In other species

Possession of the capacity to lie among non-humans has been asserted during linguistic communication studies with smashing apes. In 1 case, the gorilla Koko, when asked who tore a sink from the wall, pointed to one of her handlers and then laughed.[46]

Deceptive body language, such as feints that mislead every bit to the intended direction of assault or flight, is observed in many species. A mother bird deceives when she pretends to have a broken fly to divert the attending of a perceived predator – including unwitting humans – from the eggs in her nest, instead to her, as she draws the predator away from the location of the nest, most notably a trait of the killdeer.[47]

Cultural references

Close-up of the bronze statue depicting a walking Pinocchio, named Walking to Borås by Jim Dine

  • Carlo Collodi'south Pinocchio is a wooden puppet character frequently led into trouble by his propensity to lie; his nose grows with every one. Hence, long noses have become a caricature of liars.
  • The Boy Who Cried Wolf, a fable attributed to Aesop about a boy who continually lies that a wolf is coming. When a wolf does appear, nobody believes him anymore.
  • A famous anecdote past Parson Weems claims that George Washington once cut at a cherry-red tree with a hatchet when he was a small kid. His father asked him who cut the cherry tree and Washington confessed his crime with the words: "I'thou sorry, father, I cannot tell a prevarication."
  • To Tell the Truth was the originator of a genre of game shows with iii contestants claiming to exist a person only i of them is.
  • Glenn Kessler, a journalist at The Washington Mail, awards one to iv Pinocchios to politicians in his Washington Postal service Fact Checker weblog.[48]
  • The cliché "All is fair in beloved and war",[49] [50] asserts justification for lies used to gain advantage in these situations.
  • Sun Tzu alleged that "All warfare is based on deception." Machiavelli advised in The Prince that a prince must hibernate his behaviors and become a "great liar and deceiver."[51]
  • Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan: "In war, force and fraud are the two central virtues."

  • The concept of a memory hole was showtime popularized by George Orwell's dystopian novel, Nineteen Eighty-Iv, where the Political party'south Ministry of Truth systematically re-created all potential historical documents, in effect re-writing all of history to lucifer the oft-changing state propaganda. These changes were complete and undetectable.
  • In the motion-picture show Large Fat Liar, the story producer Marty Wolf (a notorious and proud liar) steals a story from student Jason Shepard, telling of a character whose lies become out of control to the point where each lie he tells causes him to abound in size.
  • In the film Liar Liar, the lawyer Fletcher Reede (Jim Carrey) cannot lie for 24 hours, due to a wish of his son that magically came true.
  • In the 1985 film Max Headroom, the title character comments that one tin can always tell when a pol lies because "their lips move". The joke has been widely repeated and rephrased.
  • Larry-Male child! And the Fib from Outer Infinite! was a Veggie Tales story of a law-breaking-fighting super-hero with super-suction ears, having to finish an alien, calling himself "Fib", from destroying the boondocks of Bumblyburg due to the lies that caused Fib to grow. Telling the truth is the moral to this story.
  • Lie to Me is a television series based on behavior analysts who read lies through facial expressions and body language.
  • The Invention of Lying is a 2009 picture depicting the fictitious invention of the first lie, starring Ricky Gervais, Jennifer Garner, Rob Lowe, and Tina Fey.
  • The Adventures of Baron Munchausen tell the story about an eighteenth-century businesswoman who tells outrageous, unbelievable stories, all of which he claims are true.
  • In the games Grand Theft Auto 4 and Grand Theft Auto V, in that location's an agency named FIB, a parody of the FBI, which is known to cover upward stories, cooperate with criminals, and extract data with the utilize of lying.

Psychology

It is asserted that the chapters to prevarication is a talent human being beings possess universally.[52]

The evolutionary theory proposed by Darwin states that only the fittest will survive and by lying, we aim to improve other's perception of our social image and status, adequacy, and desirability in general.[53] Studies take shown that humans begin lying at a mere age of half-dozen months, through crying and laughing, to gain attention.[54]

Scientific studies have shown differences in forms of lying across gender. Although men and women prevarication at equal frequencies, men are more than likely to prevarication in social club to please themselves while women are more likely to lie to please others.[55] The presumption is that humans are individuals living in a earth of competition and strict social norms, where they are able to use lies and deception to enhance chances of survival and reproduction.

Stereotypically speaking, David Livingstone Smith asserts that men like to exaggerate about their sexual expertise, simply shy abroad from topics that degrade them while women understate their sexual expertise to make themselves more respectable and loyal in the optics of men and avert being labelled equally a 'reddish woman'.[55]

Those with Parkinson'due south disease bear witness difficulties in deceiving others, difficulties that link to prefrontal hypometabolism. This suggests a link betwixt the capacity for dishonesty and integrity of prefrontal performance.[56]

Pseudologia fantastica is a term practical past psychiatrists to the behavior of habitual or compulsive lying. Mythomania is the condition where there is an excessive or abnormal propensity for lying and exaggerating.[57]

A contempo study constitute that composing a prevarication takes longer than telling the truth.[twoscore] Or, as Chief Joseph succinctly put it, "It does not require many words to speak the truth."[58]

Some people believe that they are convincing liars, however in many cases, they are not.[59]

Religious perspectives

In the Bible

The Old Testament and New Testament of the Bible both contain statements that God cannot prevarication and that lying is immoral (Num. 23:19,[60] Hab. 2:3,[61] Heb. 6:13–eighteen).[62] Withal, there are examples of God deliberately causing enemies to become disorientated and dislocated, in gild to provide victory (2 Thess. ii:11;[63] [64] 1 Kings 22:23;[65] Ezek. xiv:ix).[66]

Diverse passages of the Bible feature exchanges that assert lying is immoral and wrong (Prov. 6:16–xix; Ps. 5:6), (Lev. 19:11; Prov. 14:five; Prov. 30:six; Zeph. 3:13), (Isa. 28:15; Dan. eleven:27), most famously, in the Ten Commandments: "Thou shalt not deport faux witness" (Ex. 20:2–17; Deut. 5:vi–21); Ex. 23:ane; Matt. 19:xviii; Mark ten:19; Luke 18:xx a specific reference to perjury.

Other passages characteristic descriptive (not prescriptive) exchanges where lying was committed in extreme circumstances involving life and decease, even so, most Christian philosophers would debate that lying is never adequate, but that fifty-fifty those who are righteous in God's eyes sin sometimes. Old Testament accounts of lying include:[67]

  • The midwives lied about their inability to kill the Israelite children. (Ex. i:15–21).
  • Rahab lied to the king of Jericho about hiding the Hebrew spies (Josh. two:4–5) and was not killed with those who were disobedient because of her faith (Heb. 11:31).
  • Abraham instructed his wife, Sarah, to mislead the Egyptians and say that she is his sister (Gen. 12:10). Abraham'southward story was strictly true – Sarah was his half sister – but intentionally misleading considering it was designed to lead the Egyptians to believe that Sarah was not Abraham's wife for Abraham feared that they would kill him in order to take her, for she was very beautiful.[68]

In the New Attestation, Jesus refers to the Devil as the father of lies (John 8:44) and Paul commands Christians "Do not lie to 1 another" (Col. 3:9; cf. Lev. nineteen:eleven). In the Twenty-four hour period of Judgement, unrepentant liars volition be punished in the lake of fire. (Rev. 21:8; 21:27).

Augustine's taxonomy

Augustine of Hippo wrote two books about lying: On Lying (De Mendacio) and Against Lying (Contra Mendacio).[69] [70] He describes each book in his later work, Retractationes. Based on the location of De Mendacio in Retractationes, it appears to have been written about Advertising 395. The first work, On Lying, begins: "Magna quæstio est de Mendacio" ("At that place is a peachy question about Lying"). From his text, it can exist derived that St. Augustine divided lies into eight categories, listed in order of descending severity:

  • Lies in religious teaching
  • Lies that impairment others and help no one
  • Lies that damage others and help someone
  • Lies told for the pleasure of lying
  • Lies told to "delight others in smoothen discourse"
  • Lies that harm no one and that assistance someone materially
  • Lies that impairment no one and that assistance someone spiritually
  • Lies that impairment no 1 and that protect someone from "bodily defilement"

Despite distinguishing between lies according to their external severity, Augustine maintains in both treatises that all lies, defined precisely as the external communication of what one does not hold to be internally true, are categorically sinful and therefore, ethically impermissible.[71]

Augustine wrote that lies told in jest, or by someone who believes or opines the lie to be true are not, in fact, lies.[72]

In Buddhism

The fourth of the five Buddhist precepts involves falsehood spoken or committed to past action.[73] Fugitive other forms of wrong speech are besides considered part of this axiom, consisting of malicious speech, harsh oral communication, and gossip.[74] [75] A alienation of the precept is considered more than serious if the falsehood is motivated by an ulterior motive [73] (rather than, for example, "a small white lie").[76] The accompanying virtue is being honest and dependable,[77] [78] and involves honesty in work, truthfulness to others, loyalty to superiors, and gratitude to benefactors.[79] In Buddhist texts, this precept is considered most important side by side to the beginning precept, because a lying person is regarded to have no shame, and therefore capable of many wrongs.[eighty] Lying is not merely to be avoided because information technology harms others, simply as well considering it goes confronting the Buddhist ideal of finding the truth.[76] [81]

The fourth precept includes avoidance of lying and harmful speech.[82] Some modern Buddhist teachers such equally Thich Nhat Hanh interpret this to include fugitive spreading false news and uncertain information.[80] Piece of work that involves data manipulation, simulated advertizement, or online scams can as well be regarded as violations.[83] Anthropologist Barend Terwiel [de] reports that amidst Thai Buddhists, the 4th axiom likewise is seen to be cleaved when people insinuate, exaggerate, or speak abusively or deceitfully.[84]

In Norse paganism

In Gestaþáttr, i of the sections inside the Eddaic poem Hávamál, Odin states that it is advisable, when dealing with "a imitation foe who lies", to tell lies also.[85]

In Zoroastrianism

Zoroaster teaches that there are 2 powers in the universe; Asha, which is truth, order, and that which is real, and Druj, which is "the Lie". Later on, the Lie became personified every bit Angra Mainyu, a figure like to the Christian Devil, who was portrayed as the eternal opponent of Ahura Mazda (God).

Herodotus, in his mid-5th-century BC account of Persian residents of the Pontus, reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things – "to ride a horse, to depict a bow, and to speak the Truth".[86] He further notes that:[86] "The most disgraceful thing in the world [the Persians] think, is to tell a lie; the adjacent worst, to owe a debt: considering, amidst other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies."

Darius I, imagined by a Greek painter, fourth century BCE

In Achaemenid Persia, the lie, drauga (in Avestan: druj), is considered to be a cardinal sin and it was punishable past decease in some farthermost cases. Tablets discovered by archaeologists in the 1930s [87] at the site of Persepolis give usa adequate evidence about the honey and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian menstruation. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers.[88] According to Stanley Insler of Yale University, as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks constitute on these tablets contain the word truth.[89] Thus, says Insler, we take Artapana, protector of truth, Artakama, lover of truth, Artamanah, truth-minded, Artafarnah, possessing splendour of truth, Artazusta, delighting in truth, Artastuna, colonnade of truth, Artafrida, prospering the truth, and Artahunara, having nobility of truth.

Information technology was Darius the Bang-up who laid downward the "ordinance of expert regulations" during his reign. Darius' testimony about his constant battle confronting the Lie is found in the Behistun Inscription. He testifies:[90] "I was not a prevarication-follower, I was non a doer of wrong ... Co-ordinate to righteousness I conducted myself. Neither to the weak or to the powerful did I do wrong. The man who cooperated with my house, him I rewarded well; who so did injury, him I punished well."

He asks Ahuramazda, God, to protect the country from "a (hostile) regular army, from famine, from the Prevarication".[91]

Darius had his hands total dealing with big-scale rebellion which broke out throughout the empire. Later on fighting successfully with nine traitors in a yr, Darius records his battles against them for posterity and tells united states of america how it was the Lie that fabricated them rebel confronting the empire. At the Behistun inscription, Darius says: "I smote them and took prisoner ix kings. One was Gaumata past name, a Magian; he lied; thus he said: I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus ... Ane, Acina past name, an Elamite; he lied; thus he said: I am rex in Elam ... One, Nidintu-Bel by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said: I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus. ... The Lie made them rebellious, so that these men deceived the people."[92] Then communication to his son Xerxes, who is to succeed him as the cracking king: "Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do g punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure!"[ citation needed ]

See as well

  • Appeal to emotion
  • Black propaganda
  • Confabulation
  • Deception
  • Disinformation
  • Ethics
  • Evasion (ethics)
  • Fabrication (science)
  • False analogy
  • Faux equivalence
  • Falsifiability
  • Honesty
  • Mental reservation
  • Common deceit
  • Plausible deniability
  • Mail service-truth politics
  • Prisoner's dilemma
  • Propaganda
  • Psychological manipulation
  • Sophistry
  • Spin (public relations)
  • Traitor
  • Truth
  • Weasel word

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Sources

  • Harvey, Peter (2000), An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues (PDF), Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-511-07584-1, archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019, retrieved 24 August 2018
  • Wai, Maurice Nyunt (2002), Pañcasila and Catholic Moral Instruction: Moral Principles as Expression of Spiritual Feel in Theravada Buddhism and Christianity, Gregorian Biblical BookShop, ISBN9788876529207

Further reading

  • Adler, J.E. "Lying, deceiving, or falsely implicating," Periodical of Philosophy, Vol. 94 (1997), 435–52.
  • Aquinas, T., St. "Question 110: Lying," in Summa Theologiae (II.II), Vol. 41, Virtues of Justice in the Human Community (London, 1972).
  • Augustine, St. "On Lying" and "Against Lying," in R.J. Deferrari, ed., Treatises on Various Subjects (New York, 1952).
  • Bok, South. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, 2nd ed. (New York, 1989).
  • Carson, Thomas L. (2006). "The Definition of Lying". Nous. 40 (2): 284–306. doi:10.1111/j.0029-4624.2006.00610.10. S2CID 143729366.
  • Chisholm, R.Yard.; Feehan, T.D. (1977). "The intent to deceive". Journal of Philosophy. 74 (3): 143–59. doi:10.2307/2025605. JSTOR 2025605.
  • Davids, P.H.; Bruce, F.F.; Brauch, M.T. & W.C. Kaiser, Hard Sayings of the Bible (InterVarsity Press, 1996).
  • Denery II, Dallas Chiliad. The Devil Wins: A History of Lying From the Garden of Eden to the Enlightenment (Princeton University Press; 2014) 352 pages; Uses religious, philosophical, literary and other sources in a report of lying from the perspectives of God, the Devil, theologians, courtiers, and women.
  • Fallis, Don (2009). "What is Lying?". Journal of Philosophy. 106 (1): 29–56. doi:ten.5840/jphil200910612. SSRN 1601034.
  • Frankfurt, H.G. "The Faintest Passion," in Necessity, Volition and Love (Cambridge, MA: CUP, 1999).
  • Hausman, Carl, "Lies We Alive Past," (New York: Routledge, 2000).
  • Kant, I. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, The Metaphysics of Morals and "On a supposed right to lie from philanthropy," in Immanuel Kant, Applied Philosophy, eds. Mary Gregor and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: CUP, 1986).
  • Lakoff, George, Don't Recall of an Elephant, (Chelsea Greenish Publishing, 2004).
  • Leslie I. Born Liars: Why We Can't Live Without Deceit (2011)
  • Mahon, J.E. "Kant on Lies, Candour and Reticence," Kantian Review, Vol. 7 (2003), 101–33.
  • Mahon, J.Due east., "Lying," Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2d ed., Vol. 5 (Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference, 2006), 618–19.
  • Mahon, J.E. "Kant and the Perfect Duty to Others Non to Lie," British Periodical for the History of Philosophy, Vol. fourteen, No. 4 (2006), 653–85.
  • Mahon, J.E. "Kant and Maria von Herbert: Reticence vs. Deception," Philosophy, Vol. 81, No. three (2006), 417–44.
  • Mannison, D.S. "Lying and Lies," Australasian Periodical of Philosophy, Vol. 47 (1969), 132–44.
  • Maugh II, Thomas H. (1 April 1991). "Scientific discipline / Medicine : The Lies That Bind: Nearly All Species Deceive : Life: Deception is not merely useful, experts say, it is often a necessity that allows organisms to survive". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  • Mount, Ferdinand, "Ruthless and Truthless" (review of Peter Oborne, The Attack on Truth: Boris Johnson, Donald Trump and the Emergence of a New Moral Atrocity, Simon and Schuster, Feb 2021, ISBN 978 1 3985 0100 3, 192 pp.; and Colin Kidd and Jacqueline Rose, eds., Political Communication: Past, Present and Futurity, I.B. Tauris, February 2021, ISBN 978 ane 83860 004 iv, 240 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. nine (6 May 2021), pp. three, 5–viii.
  • Siegler, F.A. "Lying," American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 3 (1966), 128–36.
  • Sorensen, Roy (2007). "Baldheaded-Faced Lies! Lying Without the Intent to Deceive". Pacific Philosophical Quarterly. 88 (2): 251–64. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0114.2007.00290.10.
  • Stokke, Andreas (2013). "Lying and Asserting". Journal of Philosophy. 110 (1): 33–60. doi:x.5840/jphil2013110144. SSRN 1601034.
  • Margaret Talbot (2007). "Duped. Can brain scans uncover lies?". The New Yorker, 2 July 2007.

External links

frostandead1947.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie

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